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FELT 



INSTRUCTION PAPER 



Prepared by 
John F. Timmermann 

Textile Expert and Writer 

Formerly with the Central Woolen Co. 

Stafford Springs, Connecticut 



AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 



CHICAGO ILLINOIS 

U. S. A. 




^ . 



Copyright 1909 by 
American School of Correspondence 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
All Rights Reserved 



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C'a.X 24 4 72 6 


JUL 14 


f909 


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FELT 



Judging by its appearance felt might readily be classed among 
woven goods; but this, it will be seen, would be a wrong classification, 
although it is termed cloth in many instances. Felt as such, however, 
displaces cloth to quite a large extent; for linings and trimmings it 
has become an indispensable article, which is largely due to its greater 
cheapness, and in the shoe and rubber trade large quantities are 
being consumed. The cheaper grades of gloves have felt for linings, 
and in the saddlery trade it is found to be not only a very useful but 
an almost indispensable material. 

Stock. The stock from which felt is made varies, of course, 
with the quality and nature of the product to be made; but on the 
whole felt lends itself very readily to manipulation of the stock, and 
it is safe to say that there is very little waste made in the average 
woolen mill which cannot be used for some kind of felt. Long, coarse 
wool and the finest burr waste can be successfully used, and even 
cotton enters into quite a percentage of the products of felt mills. 

The first and most important requirement for the superintendent 
of a felt mill is a thorough knowledge of the various kinds of stock, 
especially in regard to their felting properties; for while it is true that 
much stock can be and is used which does not possess felting proper- 
ties, there must be some stock used which does possess these prop- 
erties. Cotton is considered as being void of the felting capacity, 
but thousands of yards of linings and paddings are made every year 
from cotton. 

Mixing. The mixing of the various grades of stock to be used 
for the required kind of felt is of the greatest importance, and therefore 
much care has to be exercised at this point, which is practically the 
first step in the process of felt manufacture. The stock to be mixed 
is thoroughly dusted and then taken to the mixing-room, where it is 
placed in even layers. A thin layer of the longest stapled stock is 
usually placed at the bottom, and the various other kinds are then 
placed on top of this in thin layers. The man in charge of the work 



* 



2 FELT 

must see that the different qualities of stock used are also evenly 
distributed throughout the batch. For instance, if the batch to be 
made is 3000 pounds, and six grades of stock enter into it in the fol- 
lowing proportion: 1000 pounds of one grade, 600 pounds of a second 
grade, 450 pounds of a third grade, 375 pounds of a fourth grade, 
375 pounds of a fifth grade, and 200 pounds of a sixth grade, it can 
readily be seen that the various layers must be in proportion to the 
amount of each kind of stock. 

It is usual to make from four to five layers of each kind of stock 
to be used, and the whole amount is then divided so that each layer 
of that kind will receive an equal amount. To illustrate this a little 
more clearly, let us follow the mixing process of the imaginary batch 
mentioned above. 

Assume that each quality of stock is to be divided into five dif- 
ferent layers, which gives thirty layers for the whole batch. This 
would give 200 pounds to a layer of the first kind, 120 pounds of the 
second, 90 pounds of the third, 75 pounds each of the fourth and 
fifth, and 40 pounds of the sixth. Now, it does not matter in which 
order the stock is put down, so long as the proper amount of each 
kind is taken and the same order is observed in all the layers. 

The stock is then fed to th e mixing-picker . This simple opera- 
tion should be performed very carefully for felt. The stock must be 
taken from the batch with a vertical movement in order to produce 
a good mix, for, if this is not carefully observed, the poor stock will 
not be mixed with the better grade as thoroughly as it should be. 

At this point a departure from the usual way of preparing batches 
will be noted, for no emulsion of oil is added to the stock, it being fed 
to the picker dry. While simple moisture is not harmful to the 
operations used in making felt, it would however upset calculations, 
for as such moisture would be an unknown and undeterminable 
quantity, it can be seen that no correct provision can be made for it. 
The case of oil, on the other hand, is quite different; for oil is posi- 
tively a detriment to stock intended for felts. It is impossible to get 
stock on which oil has been used into the condition necessary for the 
felting process proper, for it must be remembered that felt is not 
woven, and therefore the stock has to be prepared by what is termed 
the hardening process, in order that it may be properly handled at 
the fulling or felting process. All the stock, used for felt has to be 
closely watched for the presence of oil, although if only a small quan- 



FELT 3 

tity is slightly oily it may pass, if the larger amount is entirely free 
from oil. 

All the waste coming from woolen mills should be carefully 
inspected, in order to be on the safe side. In many places all such 
stock is thoroughly washed before using it; but this is an added 
expense, and the price obtained for the goods does not admit of its 
being done in most instances. 

After the stock has been run through the mixing-picker, it is 
usually run through a burr-picker; not because the burring operation 
is necessary on all kinds of stock, but as there usually is a great variety 
of different grades of stock, it frequently happens that a batch is 
somewhat burry, and it is well to be on the safe side. In many places 
the stock is run twice through the same picker. 

Carding. The stock after this careful treatment is ready for 
the carding process. The carding is, next to the mixing proper, of 
the greatest importance, for in order to have an even piece of felt, the 
carding must be even. Even carding cannot be done with the several 
machines in poor condition, and especial care must be taken that both 
cylinder and workers are perfectly true and well set. It also is nec- 
essary that the clothing should be of the proper sharpness, and it 
should be prevented from becoming too full by stripping at regular 
intervals. When these things are attended to as they should be, the 
carding process will not cause much trouble. The stock, after com- 
ing from the picker room, is fed to the first breaker card. As in 
ordinary feeding, the stock should be fed as evenly as possible, and 
automatic feeds are generally used. 

When the carded stock arrives at the doffer, instead of being 
twisted into roving, as is done where a thread is to be produced, it is 
deposited upon a drum, which, revolving at the back of the doffing 
cylinder, takes the stock along and winds it. When the lap on the 
drum is thick enough, it is torn off and laid aside in sheets to await 
the next step in the process. The speed of the drum exerts quite an 
influence upon the product, for, if it runs too fast, the stock is stretched 
too much, while if it runs too slowly, the stock will be lumpy. 

On the lower grades of felt the second breaker card is dispensed 
with in most mills, although the product could be much improved 
by its use. However, this is a matter of judgment, and much of the 
better grade of goods is made without the use of the second breaker. 



FELT 




^ 



FELT 5 

When the stock has been run through the breakers it is ready 
for the finisher card, which, in the language of the felting industry is 
termed the "former". ■ As the name implies, this card is used for the 
purpose of forming the carded stock into the proper shape for the 
piece of felt which is to be made, and for this reason the width of 
the machine has to be somewhat greater than the width of the goods, 
for the fulling, necessary to give the piece the required strength, 
cannot be performed without more or less shrinkage. Usually the 
former cards are from one hundred to one hundred six inches wide, 
and the feeding apron is supplied with guide boards, which can be 
set so that any width, within the limits of the machine, can be made. 
This card is provided also with a drum at the back under the doffer 
cylinder. The drum is used to operate an endless canvas apron, 
on which the stock is deposited. 

At this stage a piece of felt is generally made forty yards long, 
therefore this is the length of the canvas apron. After passing around 
the drum, the apron passes over a series of rolls set in a frame, and 
as high as the room will allow. This is done for the purpose of 
economizing space. At the rear end of this stand of rolls another 
drum is placed, over which the apron also passes on its return journey. 
This drum is used to roll the stock on sticks when the carding process 
is completed. The diagram, Fig. 1, shows how the apron travels 
and also how the stock is wound upon the sticks. 

When the guide boards have been properly set for the width 
wanted, the stock from the breaker card, which is lying ready in 
sheets, is carefully weighed and then fed evenly to the machine. The 
endless apron referred to above is connected with the machine, being 
virtually a part of it, so that when the machine is in motion, the apron 
also is in motion. When the stock comes from the doffer, it is depos- 
ited upon the apron and carried along with it, traveling around until 
all the stock required for the piece has been carded and deposited upon 
the apron. As soon as this is done, the stock is torn- across on the 
drum at the rear and wound around a stick, commonly termed a x 
batstick. This completes the carding process and the stock thus V 
formed is termed a bat. 

When the stock is ready to be made into bats and is weighed for 
vhe piece, allowance is made for the sides, which are generally thinner 



6 FELT 

than the body, and have to be trimmed off so that the goods may be of 
an even thickness. 

The method of procedure at this stage depends greatly upon the 
nature of the goods being made. On common weight goods the 
whole piece may be made in one bat, while 'on heavy goods two or 
more bats are sometimes made and placed together afterwards to 
get the required weight. All grades which are to weigh one pound 
to the yard, or less, are usually made in one bat; while those goods 
which are to weigh from two to ten or twelve pounds per yard are made 
in bats weighing from forty to sixty pounds, as the case may be. 

When the bats have been made they are taken to the trimming 
table and are trimmed to width, and as many bats as are required for 
the piece are placed on top of each other. When trimmed the bats 
are again weighed, and they are then ready for the next step, which 
is termed "hardening". 

.Hardening. When the stock has been- carded into bats it is 
\Joose and can be handled only with greatest care. For this reason 
the hardening process is employed, to give the bat a consistency where 
it can be handled readily in subsequent processes. Hardening felt 
is a very simple process, but it requires quite a lot of time. The 
machine itself consists of a heavy iron framework supporting a strong 
cast-iron platen, which is thirty-two inches wide by one hundred 
ten inches long. A top platen of the same width, but two or three 
inches shorter, is over the first one, so that the actual width which the 
machine will handle is about one hundred six inches. 

The accompanying illustration, Fig. 2, shows one style of hard- 
ener, and it will be observed that the machine is very solidly built. 
On the left side of the illustration the mechanism for its operation may 
be seen. 

Hardening felt is an adaptation of the principles of fu lli ng, which 
is employed here to give to felt its first stability. As is well known, 
the elements required for fulling are pressure, moisture, and heat, and 
all three are made use of at this process. The illustration gives only 
the mechanical part of the hardening operation, and the explanation 
is thus not complete. On each end of the hardener is placed a bench- 
like construction which corresponds with the bottom platen. On 
one end of the hardener this bench is about eight yards long, while on 
the -other end it is about four yards long. Between the longer bench 



FELT 




8 FELT 

and the hardener is placed a steam box, which is covered with burlap 
to cause the steam to pass through evenly. At the outside of each 
platen a wooden frame, to which canvas is secured, is placed. The 
canvas is drawn tightly over both surfaces. 

At the end of the benches is placed a shaft operated by a crank, 
and on this is wound another canvas apron from fifty to fifty-two yards 
long. The tops of the benches are covered with planks one foot wide, 
and there is a space between each plank to admit of a roll being placed 
between them. The canvas apron is first rolled up smoothly on the 
end of the eight yard bench, and the end is then drawn over the bench 
and steam box and passed between the platens. It is then brought 
to the shaft at the end of the other bench and secured. It will be 
seen that the rolls make it much easier to draw the apron along. 

The bat, ready for hardening, is then placed upon this apron 
over the steam box, with the end just touching the edge of the bottom 
platen, and is unrolled toward the end of the bench. Care must be 
taken that no wrinkles are in either the apron or the bat. On top 
of the bat is placed an apron of burlap which has previously been 
smoothly rolled on a bat stick and this also is unrolled towards the 
end of the bench, thus covering the stock completely. After moisten- 
ing this burlap apron, another bat is placed on top of it in the same 
manner as the first, and also another apron. This is continued until 
there are as many pieces as it is intended to treat. 

The steam is then turned on in the steam box and the pieces 
saturated, after which the whole is drawn along by means of the shaft 
and crank at the end of the short bench, until the steamed part of 
the goods is between the platens. The top platen is then let down 
on the goods and the machine started. Now it will be seen by a glance 
at the illustration that a mechanism is provided to impart a recipro- 
cating motion to the top platen. We have now the three elements 
of fulling in action; the steam supplying moisture and heat, and the 
top platen supplying the pressure. 

The duration of the vibration is automatically controlled by 
means of a mechanism with gears and a wormshaft. When this 
mechanism has been set it will shift the belt from the tight to the loose 
pulley, thus stopping the vibration, and it will also lift the top platen. 
The steaming process of the next width has been going on during this 
time, and by drawing the apron ahead thirty-two inches, another 



J 



FELT 




t 



10 FELT 

width is placed between the platens. The machine is again started, 
this being repeated until the end is reached. Both the bats and the 
burlap aprons are again rolled up on bat sticks, after passing through 
the hardener. The vibrations of the top platen referred to are very 
short, not exceeding one-half inch from one extreme to the other. 

In Fig. 3 is shown another style of hardener^ which is often termed 
a double hardener, because the machine is constructed in such a man- 
ner that the vibrations are imparted to both top and bottom platens. 
The vibratory motion thus being doubled, the machine will produce 
the same results as the single hardener in one-half the time. In all 
other respects the machines are alike. 

Four pieces are usually treated at the hardener at one time by 
placing one bat on top of another as described, but this" depends 
entirely upon the weight of the goods. For instance, on glove linings 
which weigh from ten to twelve ounces per yard, six pieces is the com- 
mon practice; while on heavy laundry and saddlery felts, which 
weigh from ten to twelve pounds to the yard, one piece is all that can 
be treated at a time, and even then it is necessary to repeat the opera- 
tion. 

On some of the light weight goods also, it is often necessary to ' 
give two hardenings in order that they may be better handled at the 
fulling process. This is done as follows : To commence, three pieces 
are hardened, then placed on top of three fresh pieces and passed 
through the machine again. The first three pieces are then taken 
off the machine, and three more fresh pieces put through under the 
second three; and so on. 

After the hardening process is completed the pieces are taken to 
the fulling room, unrolled, and drawn over a perch for examination. 
Every imperfection in carding will show, and the attention of the 
carders must be called to any unevenness in order that it may be reme- 
died. After a careful examination the goods are ready for soaping, 
preparatory to putting them into the fulling machine.. 

The soaping operation is preferably performed with a machine 
similar to the one shown in Fig. 4. It is a very simple contrivance, 
consisting of two squeeze rolls marked A, the lower one of which is set 
in the tank C which contains the soap. On each side are guide rolls, 
a single one marked B on the side where the goods enter; and a set 
of two rolls also marked B on the other side, to take care of the goods 



/ 



FELT 



11 



as they leave the squeeze rolls. The machine is made wide enough 
to admit of the pieces passing through open width, which is preferable 
to having them in the rope shape, common to ordinary soaping 
machines. 

The soap used on felts is generally used very warm, as it is thus 
possible to use a better bodied soap, and also to provide the heat 
necessary in the fulling process. The strength of the soap need not 




y 



Fig. 4. Elevation of Soaping Machine. 

be very great as there is not much, if any, oil or grease to loosen, but 
on account of alkali being a powerful aid in fulling, quite an amount 
may be used. These things do not go by rule, being subject to the 
judgment of the one who has charge of the fulling. In some instances 
it is found profitable to have the soap as near neutral as possible, and 
then add alkali, dissolved in hot water, near the end of the process. 

JFulH ng. The machines used for fulling are of the old-fashioned 
kind, that is, the crank type of mill, for it is impossible to use rotary 



12 PELT 

mills on felts. There are two reasons why rotary mills are not 
adapted for this work: first, because the goods are not solid enough 
to stand the strain, and consequently would pull apart; and second, 
because the pieces, being in rope form, would felt together in that 
shape. As there are no provisions, on this style of fulling mill, to 
regulate the shrinkage in width and length, the desired end must be 
attained in another way. 

The illustration, Fig. 5, shows a crank type fulling mill, and it 
will be seen that one or more pieces can be placed at either end. The 
sides are on hinges and can be let down to make it easier to remove the 
goods. The letters A, A, A, A, indicate the four sides of the mill 
which are made of 4-inch yellow pine. The top frame B, B, B, B, 
supports the shaft E to which the hammers C, C, are connected at 
D, D. The levers H connect the hammers to the crank shaft F 
which is driven by a belt on the pulley G. When the shaft revolves 
a reciprocating motion is imparted to the hammers. 

When it is desired to full the goods up in length, they are 
placed in the machine so that the pressure exerted by the crank will 
be lengthwise, therefore the pieces are folded into the machine at 
full width. If, however, they are to be shrunk in width, they are 
placed in the machine from the side. When goods shrink in length, 
they should shrink more or less in width also; therefore it requires 
close attention on the part of the fuller to bring them out right. 

After the goods have been placed in the machine and have run 
about ten minutes, or sometimes less, they must be carefully examined 
to see if they felt together. If there is any indication of felting, they 
must be taken out at once, and all wrinkles which have begun to felt 
together must be carefully pulled apart. The edges are generally 
the worst for this fault, and often cause much trouble and hard work 
to keep them smooth and open. The better the quality of the stock 
used the more trouble of this kind will be present, and it often requires 
from four to six men to operate one of these machines. It is not 
uncommon to find from thirty to forty men working in a fulling room 
with five or six fulling machines. 

As the fulling operation nears completion, greater attention is 
required, for the goods should be taken from the machine and opened 
out more often. They are also carefully measured, both as to width 
and length, and if the width comes up faster than it should, the goods 



*? 



FELT 



13 




14 FELT 

have to be pulled apart again. This makes the work of the fulling 
room very hard, but there is no other way to get the desired results. 
There are goods which require additional alkali to hasten the fulling, 
but the same precautions as to taking them from the machine and 
opening out must be observed. When the pieces are finally taken 
from the machine and have been opened and measured and found 
right, they are ready for the washer. 

Washing. The washing machines do not differ from ordinary 
washers, except that more room is given the goods. In a common 
eight-string washer only four pieces are treated at a time. This makes 
it possible to have the guide rings and throat plates, through which 
the goods have to pass, much larger than on woven goods. 

After the goods are run into the washer and the ends sewed 
together, they are given a generous supply of warm water and run 
about fifteen minutes, after which the gates are opened and the lather 
rinsed off with warm water, followed by cold water. If the goods are 
to be fancy dblors, they must be rinsed very thoroughly in order to 
remove all the soap, while if they are gray or white, a common washing 
and rinsing will answer. In washing felts it is often much the same 
as on woven goods, for some finishers think that goods cannot be 
washed clean unless soap is added in the washer. While there may 
be rare cases where it is advisable to use additional soap at the washing 
process, such cases are rare, and as a general rule it may be accepted 
as a foolish waste of good material. In addition to this, it will make 
the washing, process slower, for the more soap in the goods, the 
longer time is required to remove it. 

From the washer the goods are sent either to the dye house or to 
the extractor to be extracted before drying, according to the nature 
of the goods. 

Drying. The drying process is the most particular operation in 
finishing felt goods, for the defects in other operations must be cor- 
rected. With even the greatest care in fulling, the pieces will not 
shrink evenly, some being long and narrow and others being shrunk 
too much in length and not enough in width. It is known how much 
stock there is in the piece, for in this respect all pieces of one style are 
supposed to weigh alike; the loss sustained in the various processes 
is also known; so that if the goods are to weigh a certain amount per 
yard when finished, it is an easy matter to figure how many yards 



PELT 



15 



long the piece ought to be when finished. Therefore every piece that 
comes to the dryer is measured, and if it is short of the required length, 
it must be stretched in length sufficiently so that the piece will be right 
when it is dry. 




So it will be seen that aside from the actual work of drying the 
pieces, much judgment is required to have uniform and satisfactory 
work result. 

After-processes vary with the quality of the goods. A common 
padding or white cotton glove lining is usually passed through the 



16 PELT 

press and then rolled up, measured, etc. These goods are given a 
bath of starch after the washing is completed, which makes them feel 
more substantial than they really are. In the case of all cotton linings 
this starch bath is a necessity, for without it, it would be difficult to 
get the desired article. Such goods as these require very little labor 
in the finishing room, but hat felts cause much more work. 

There are two kinds of hat felt, the smooth and the rough. The 
smooth hat felt is taken from the washer to the extractor and partly 
extracted, that is, more moisture is left in the goods than would be 
done if they were intended to be dried. From the extractor the pieces 
are taken to the napper and both sides thoroughly napped. They 
are then sent to the dye house to be colored. When they return, they 
are thoroughly extracted and dried, after which they are again taken 
to the napper and receive one run on each side. The sandpapering 
machine follows, each side being given one or more runs to smooth 
the face, and the goods are ready for shearing. Fig. 6 shows a felt 
shearing machine. The goods are sheared down so that the face as 
well as the back will be perfectly smooth, after which they pass to be 
pressed and the usual final work. 

On rough hat felts, as a rule, the wet napping is omitted and they 
are napped after coming from the dryer. This class of felt requires 
the use of mohair, and as this is an expensive article, it is customary 
to have the middle of good filling stock and a layer of mohair on each 
side. After the fulling the mohair is held tightly by the body felt, 
for it has very little of the felting property itself. This fact must be 
remembered when the goods are napped, or the nap will be thin and 
straggling. 

For the purpose of napping the ordinary mohair hat felt, a 
machine resembling a double cylinder brushing machine is used, only 
the brushes are lacking and the cylinders are covered with fancy card 
clothing. On low grade mohair hat felts the rear cylinder is often 
replaced by a brush cylinder, thus leaving only one napping cylinder. 
Most mohair hat felts are measured and rolled up immediately after 
napping, but on the finer grades, where it is an object to bring out the 
luster of the mohair, the wet napping process is employed, and after 
drying they are again lightly napped and sent to the press for a good 
hard pressing. 

Shoe felts are usually of low grade but are felted as solid as possi- 



/ 




FIFTY CELL DRYER, WITH HOUSING REMOVED, FOR DRYING CLOTH 

Vacuum Process Co. 



FELT 17 

ble. These pass from, the washer to the dye house to be colored, 
usually black. They are then dried and thoroughly sandpapered. 
Shearing follows, for they also have to be as smooth as possible. They 
are then pressed hard, and are ready for the final work of measuring, 
etc. 

The machines used for sandpapering are usually the nappers 
referred to, but the card clothing is taken off and the cylinders covered 
with sandpaper. The processes in the finishing room do not differ 
materially from those employed in other mills, for the goods are in 
most respects treated like cloth. Some difference is noted when 
handling heavy laundry felts, for such goods cannot be handled in 
lengths over ten yards; neither can they be doubled, therefore they 
are rolled up full width and sent to the market. After the drving 
process is completed they are at once measured and packed. 

Felts are made for almost every imaginable purpose, but in the 
foregoing the chief points in handling felt have been given, and on the 
whole there is very little departure from the methods explained. 

PUNCHED OR NEEDLE FELT 

Another class of felt merits mention; namely, the so-called 
Punched or Needle Felt. It is chiefly used for the cheaper grades of 
stable blankets, and has excellent wearing qualities. 

The stock used for this class of goods must be of good felting 
quality and should not be of too long staple. It is not desired to have 
much nap on the blankets, for the more nap there is on them, the 
sooner the wool stock will wear off, but if a good felting short-stapled 
stock is used, and if the pieces have been well felted in the fulling 
process, a good serviceable article will be the result. 

The carding process is practically the same as before described, 
and as soon as the stock has been properly rolled on the bat stick it 
is taken to the punching machine, an illustration of which is shown 
in Fig. 7. 

The body of the goods consists of a good quality burlap, and the 
wool stock is deposited on each side of this, so that when done, the 
burlap is entirely hidden from sight. The punching machine is used 
to make the wool adhere to the burlap until it is properly felted. It 
will be seen that the mechanism is extremely simple, consisting 
chiefly of a series of rolls for moving the burlap and stock, and the 



18 



FELT 




FELT 19 

punching mechanism proper. This latter part of the machine con- 
sists of the bed A and the head block D. The bed is rigid, but the 
head block is set into jaws on each side, to which, by means of the 
lever G, an up-and-down motion is imparted. 

Into the head block D is fitted a board E, winch is removable, 
and into which are set several rows of a peculiar kind of needle (shown 
in Fig. 8). As will be seen, these needles are supplied with barbs 
near the point which is intended to punch the stock into 
the burlap. They are set into the board very carefully 
and firmly, for in passing downward they pass between 
one-quarter inch steel rods F, set one-quarter inch apart. 
These rods are firmly placed one-half inch above the bed 
A, while the burlap with the carded wool stock passes 
over them; that is, between the rods and the head block 
D. It is necessary that these rods also be placed very 
carefully, for in the case of any deviation, the needles will 
come in contact with them and thus lose much of their 
efficiency. The needles are set in rows which are one- 
half inch apart and there is one-half inch space between 
the needles. 

The rolls B and C move the goods and are driven by a 
chain from the delivery roll so that their movement may 
be even and steady. A piece of burlap is fed into the ma- 
chine at H, the piece being laid on the floor and taken up 
by the machine as it is needed. The bat of carded stock 
is placed at I, the end being passed under the roll K and p ^ n 
placed on top of the burlap, and carried along with it, Needle - 
A leader is fastened to the end of the burlap and this is taken to C, 
usually passing over C and between C and C 1 . From there it passes 
into the scray L. 

The piece of burlap moves about one-quarter inch to each down- 
ward stroke of the head block D, and as there are five or six rows of 
needles, the stock is pretty thoroughly punched through it. When 
the bat of carded stock is run out, another is placed in position and 
the process continues, but when the end of the first forty yards (which 
is the length of the first bat) reaches the scray, it is cut off and returned 
to the front of the machine to await its turn for the next run. 

As soon as the end of the second piece is reached, the first is 



20 FELT 

attached to its end, but in such a manner that the side which has been 
punched is on the underside. Another bat of carded stock is placed 
in position and the machine is again started. The burlap now 
receives a coating of wool stock on the other side. When the first 
end of this piece gets as far as the rolls C and C 1 , it is separated from 
the other piece and wound around a stick which is placed in the slots, 
M M. 

When the punching operation is completed the pieces are ready 
for the fulling. In the fulling room the pieces are first given a thor- 
ough soaping. It is desired to have the stock felted as well as it is 
possible to felt it, and as there is no danger of too much shrinkage, 
the soap for this kind of fabric can be made very strong in point of 
alkali. Of course, there is no grease to loosen which would require 
the presence of alkali in the soap to any extent, but on account of its 
being a great aid to felting it should be liberally used. The cost of 
alkali is much less than the cost of soap, and it has a tendency to make 
the body of the soap heavier, so that in this case the amount of hard 
soap to be used can be considerably reduced, thus keeping the cost 
for soap very low. 

A soaping machine should be used on all felts, but it is a deplor- 
able fact that this machine is found only in a few places. Without 
the aid of a soaping machine, the goods will have to be soaped in the 
old way by spreading them on the floor and applying the soap by 
means of a sprinkling can. The waste of soap thus entailed would 
soon pay for the best machine of this kind ever made, but when it is 
considered that almost any mechanic can construct a machine which 
will fill the need in every respect, it is surprising that so many still hold 
to the old way. 

When the pieces have been properly soaped they may be placed 
in the fulling machine. In this instance also, the crank mills are 
preferable. The shrinkage will be small so that no particular atten- 
tion is necessary in putting the pieces in the mill, as is the case on 
regular felt goods. However, if the stock has the felting property 
it should have, it is necessary to watch the pieces closely, and remove 
them from the machine frequently for an opening and general over- 
hauling, so that no wrinkles may felt into them. Even though the 
goods are of the cheapest kind, they should be perfect. 

The fulling proper should take about two hours and at the end 



FELT 21 

of this time the goods may be taken from the machine, well opened, 
and inspected. 

The washing process is not very elaborate, as the pieces contain 
very little grease or other foreign matter which needs to be removed, 
but unless they are well rinsed they are apt to feel stiff at first. Plenty 
of warm water at the washer for these, as well as all other goods, is 
much to be desired. This does not mean that they cannot be washed 
properly without the aid of warm water, for unless the supply of warm 
water is plentiful it is as well to rinse entirely with cold water, bearing 
in mind, however, to let them rinse one-quarter or one-half hour 
longer than would be required with warm water. 

From the washer the goods go at once to the dye house to be 
colored, usually a dark yellow. They are then ready for drying, if 
medium goods. 

When a somewhat better quality of felt is made, it is given a 
heavy brushing with plenty of water. This has a tendency to lay all 
the loose fibers in one direction, but does not produce what may be 
termed a nap. When treated thus, the finished article has a much 
smoother and better appearance; but after a day's use, one would be 
unable to tell the better from the cheaper grade. 

After drying the pieces they are taken to the press and receive a 
hard pressing, after which they are at once sent to the making-up 
room, for in most places the goods leave the mill in the shape of the 
finished blanket. 



EXAMINATION PAPER 



FELT 



Read carefully: Place your name and full address at the head of the 
paper. Any cheap, light paper like the sample previously sent you may be 
used. Do not crowd your work, but arrange it neatly and legibly. Do not 
copy the answers from the Instruction Paper; use your own words, so that we 
may be sure that you understand the subject. 

1. In the hardening process, how many pieces are treated 
at the same time? 

2. How is felt stock mixed and prepared? 

3. Why should oil not be used about the stock? 

4. What machines are used in the fulling process? 

5. How many and what kinds of felt are used in hats? 

6. What color is "needle felt" usually dyed? 

7. How many layers of each kind of stock are generally used? 

8. What are the important requirements for the superintendent 
in a felt mill? 

9. After the stock has been run through the bur pickers, what 
is the next step in the preparation of the stock? 

10. How many hardenings is it necessary to give lightweight 
goods? 

11. Does the washing process have to be as elaborate with 
"needle felt" as with other felts? Why? 

12. Why cannot a rotary machine be used in the fulling process? 

13. Of what use is "punched" or "needle felt?" 

14. After the goods have been fulled, what is the next process? 

15. What is the most particular operation in finishing felt goods, 
and why? 

16. Explain fully the difference in fulling goods in length and 
in width. 

After completing the work, add and sign the following statement: 

I hereby certify that the above work is entirely my own. 

(Signed) 



